Differences Between the Excitation-Contraction Coupling Mechanism Between Skeletal and Cardiac Muscles free essay sample

Blueprint the contrasts between the excitation-compression coupling component among skeletal and cardiovascular muscles. Excitation-withdrawal coupling is the blend of the electrical and mechanical occasions in the muscle filaments and is connected by the arrival of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. (Silverthorn, 2007) In the skeletal muscle, activity potential in the nerves is produced when the substantial engine neurons discharges the synapse acetylcholine (ACh), at the neuromuscular intersection. This starts muscle activity potential which is then transmitted to the t-tubules. Activity potential in the t-tubules prompts the arrival of calcium in the sarcoplasmic reticulum activating muscle compression. In the cardiovascular muscles, the underlying depolarisation in sino-atrial hub starts the activity potential in the muscles. This is then transmitted to T-Tubule which prompts calcium flood from extracellular space. This prompts the sarcoplasmic reticulum discharging calcium which causes the muscle compression. The skeletal muscles need ACh from the substantial engine neuron, all together for skeletal muscle activity potential to start excitation-withdrawal coupling. We will compose a custom article test on Contrasts Between the Excitation-Contraction Coupling Mechanism Between Skeletal and Cardiac Muscles or on the other hand any comparative subject explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page In cardiovascular muscles, the activity potential likewise starts EC coupling, however it begins incautiously in the hearts pace producer cells and spreads by means of hole intersections. (Richard and Pocock, 2006) The skeletal muscles and cardiovascular muscles contrast for the most part in systems by which the depolarisation in the film prompts the arrival of Ca2+. In the skeletal muscle, the T-tubule layer is coupled near the sarcoplasmic reticulum by means of the L-type calcium channel and the ryanodine receptor. In any case, in the heart muscle the Ca2+ enters by means of voltage-gated calcium channels which start a regenerative discharge, through initiation of the Ca2+ delicate ryanodine receptor and this underlying passage triggers further discharge from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. (Rang and Dale, 2003) The system of excitation-compression coupling in the skeletal muscle depends on the ryanodine receptor being initiated to create the Ca2+ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum that is answerable for permitting muscle withdrawal. This is clear of direct coupling between the calcium channels of the T-tubule and the ryanodine receptors of the sarcoplasmic reticulum. The cardiovascular muscles need T-tubules and in this manner, there is no immediate coupling between the plasma film and the sarcoplasmic reticulum. In cardiovascular muscles, the instrument depends on a calcium-prompted calcium discharge, which incorporates the conduction of calcium particles into the cell, causing the further arrival of particles. (Rang and Dale, 2003) The term of activity potential likewise varies for the skeletal and heart muscles. In the skeletal muscles, the activity likely short and finishes as the related jerk withdrawal starts. The jerk compression is short and finishes as the sarcoplasmic reticulum recuperates the Ca2+ that it discharged. In the heart muscle cells, the activity potential is dependable, and Ca2+ continues entering the phone all through the level time frame. Subsequently, the muscle cell compression proceeds until the level closures. In this manner, the cardiovascular muscle withdrawals are about multiple times as long as those of skeletal muscles filaments. (Silverthorn, 2007) The cardiovascular muscle tissue can contract without neural incitement, by means of automaticity and the specific heart muscle cells called pacemaker cells control the planning of constrictions.

Habitual Offender Laws in Alabama Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Routine Offender Laws in Alabama - Essay Example While Erwin Chemerinsky attempts to demonstrate that the three strikes law doesn't generally work and the preposterousness of applying it to the Leandro Andrade and other peaceful offenses, Helland and Tabarrok have assessed that it viably discourages just as cripples both delicate center and bad-to-the-bone guilty parties, by diminishing wrongdoing between 17-20 percent. It is exorbitant since the normal wrongdoer under three strikes law goes through in any event 20 years in jail. All things being equal, it forestalls in any event 31,000 wrongdoings per year by saving lawbreakers off the boulevards for longer terms. Presentation The three strikes law is a law that permits State Courts to force a lifelong incarceration with probability of parole for individuals who have been sentenced for at least three violations of fierce or genuine nature. It was famous during the 1990s however has been scrutinized generally - it doesn't take into account judges to take a gander at the conditions of the case and let the discipline fit the wrongdoing. Conversation It appears that three strikes law is another type of required condemning, and those rules were tossed out of the window by the Supreme Court in 2005 (MSNBC News Website, 2005). Composing against the routine wrongdoers law in California, Harvard graduate and Constitutional Law master Erwin Chemerinsky’s article entitled ‘Is California’s Three Strikes Mandatory Sentencing Law Cruel and Unusual Punishment?’ contends against the Three Strikes Law in the light of three or four cases. Leandro Andrade was condemned to 50 years or two successive terms of 25 years each as a result of taking kids’ tapes on two separate events the all out estimation of which was $153. Since he had two earlier feelings, the appointed authority chose to slap a crime on him-rather than an offense that conveyed an a lot lesser sentence. The primary impulse for change has originated from FAMM or Families Against Ma ndatory Sentencing, which expresses that these laws are unwavering and pass sentence just based on the weight and sort of medication a guilty party has (FAMM, 2012) The Law has plainly settled that horribly unbalanced disciplines are merciless and strange and abuse the Eighth Amendment. In Atkins v. Virginia (2002) the Court had decided that the Eighth Amendment compactly disallows unnecessary authorizations. What is to be taken a gander at is (1) the gravity of the offense and the cruelty of the punishment; (2) sentences forced on different crooks in a similar zone and (3) sentences forced on lawbreakers for a similar wrongdoing submitted in different territories. In Coker v. Georgia (1977) it was decided that the sentence of death recommended for assault was terribly unbalanced and over the top as far as the Eighth Amendment. Likewise in Solem it was contended that to convict a man to life detainment for passing an awful check for $100 and six earlier lighter and peaceful offenses was unlawful and exorbitant. Both the Helm and Andrade cases were peaceful offenses and included sums under $400, which isolates stupendous burglary from trivial robbery. By taking a gander at earlier records, the three strikes law is rebuffing a criminal for earlier offenses for which he has just spent time in jail. It could be maintained if sensible men bolstered the choice, yet no sensible man will. Writing on the side of the three strikes law in Does Three Strikes Deter? Eric Helland and Alex Tabarrok (2007) express that this law was ordered in California in March 1994.

January Update - UGA Undergraduate Admissions

January Update - UGA Undergraduate Admissions January Update We are just over one week from the Regular Decision deadline today, and I am guessing that thousands of students are finishing up the final pieces of the application. As you can see from the last few winter weather days, you never know when something odd might cause a delay in taking care of your application, from a power outage, school being closed, a bout of the flu (stay healthy out there!) or something else entirely. As such, I heavily suggest that anyone who is working on their application not wait until the day of the deadline to submit your application! We have just under 17,000 total applications in so far, and we expect the next two weeks to be busy handling applications, documents, test scores, phone calls, etc. After you apply, please be patient with us as we match up your documents. When you request a test score or document to be sent to UGA, it does not get sent instantly, and we need time to match up items. We generally suggest giving us 8-10 business days between the item being sent out and it posting on the myStatus. As well, if you had items sent to us prior to applying, it takes a while to hand match these items, especially with the volume of applications being submitted around the deadline. We have given you until January 22 to send in supporting materials (postmark or electronic submission date), and we will be accepting the January SAT as the last exam date, so we will be taking test scores through about mid-February. The best thing to do after applying and having all items sent is to monitor the myStatus page and to be patient with us. If, after 8-10 business days, the item(s) are still not showing and you have made sure they were sent, you can then contact us to check on the situation. I hope this helps, and Go Dawgs! January Update - UGA Undergraduate Admissions January Update From January 1 through January 22 we have received approximately 4,100 documents from Parchment/Docufide, 2,400 transcripts from GAcollege411 and 8,000 teacher recommendations and high school evaluations from our online forms. Thats 14,500 documents in 22 days! This does not include documents that were mailed in, emailed to admproc@uga.edu or emailed to individual counselors. We are working vigorously to match documents with files and as you can imagine we are quite busy. Documents are being matched as quickly as possible, but this takes time given the large number we have received recently. Please be patient with us. Remember, it takes about 8 to 10 business days for us to match a document to your file once we have received it. If you still have not submitted material from the high school, you should do so as soon as possible! We will continue to accept material from the school at least through the end of January. Because we have received a large number of First Year transcripts given the application deadline, we will begin reviewing summer transfer applications a little later this year. We will likely begin to review summer transfer students in mid February. Once we have finished reviewing all summer transfer applicants, we will begin to review fall transfers. Applications are reviewed in the order in which they are completed, not the order received. For a transfer application to be complete we must receive your application, application fee, and a transcript from each college/university you have attended (including dual enrollment). We will continue to post additional updates as they become available. Go Dawgs!

Life Is A Never Ending Learning Experience - 936 Words

Life is a never-ending learning experience. Our friends and family teach us through positive experiences; and, our enemies with negative ones. To this regard, I owe one of my most defining experiences to my enemy—myself. This experience reflects my bad judgments that disregarded rationality, civility, and compassion and gave into contempt, hatred, and maliciousness. As a 16-year-old attending a prestigious college with a full scholarship, I was consumed by a false sense of pride, maturity, and character; and I failed to realize my shortcomings until I was embroiled in a long, daunting, and emotionally exhaustive investigation that resulted in my suspension from Middlebury. Though my suspension has affected my timely graduation and reputation, the benefits that I have gained from it makes the costs negligible. My suspension has not only allowed me to reassess my values and character but it has allowed me to emerge as a better person with a stronger self-perception and concern f or others. I realized early on that I was very different from most Middlebury students. From my low-income upbringing to a relatively young age, my meaning of life in college also differed. While my peers used their time to explore emotionally and academically, I planned the steps that would position me as a strong applicant for medical school. However, in my second year, I met ‘Jane.’ Jane was the one person whom I believed to be superior to me on all levels. She was a smart, cheerful, and a charmingShow MoreRelatedReflection Paper1050 Words   |  5 Pages Reading and writing is a fundamental part of our learning experience. 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For instance, there are twoRead MoreEssay On Online Marketing921 Words   |  4 PagesThis is a true story. So, my co-worker and I are sitting in the van at work brainstorming about how we can make more money and have our happy ending. We also had a heart to heart discussion on how we are going to retire on Social Security and our pension and keep up our style of living. We quickly concluded that it was not possible. Ever the optimist (me) and ever the realist (her), we started to look online for answers since that is where the solution to everything can be found these days. OpeningRead MoreHow Google Really Making Us Stupid?961 Words   |  4 Pages Is Google really making us stupid or life without google going to making us stupid. In my opinion, I believe that Google isn’t making us stupid, but smarter. 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The monster in the book details his suffering in greater detail, is more eloquent and persuasive and also experiences a more tragic ending, and as a result the reader feels more sympathy towards him than an audience member would feel towards the monster in the play. The greater detail provided by the book about the monster’s experiences allows the reader to sympathize with the monster more so than an audience member. When the Frankenstein monster is retelling the storyRead MoreEssay on Growth and Prosperity539 Words   |  3 Pagesbut we can control how we embrace our never ending journey. As American anthropologist, educator, and writer, Loren Eiseley, once said â€Å"To grow is to gain, an enlargement of life†¦Yet it is also a departure. There is something lost that will not return.† Eiseley looked at life as a continuous advance, to make each day better then the last. He also notices that with every gain there is a lose, whether it be youth, innocence, or even lost moments. The key to life is to not ponder on the lost momentsRead MoreAnalysis Of The Little Mermaid 1478 Words   |  6 Pageswhich leads to the unlikely fairytale ending. The fairytale can also be called a parody of conventional fairytales hidden as one itse lf. In an essay by Vladimir Propp, he explains how when the ending turns out to be tragic, the expectations of the readers are reversed (Propp 79). The parody and irony led to a somewhat of a contradiction between a fairytale and a sad love story. However, the difference between a traditional fairytale and the little mermaid s ending, I believe allows for a sense of tragedyRead MorePeople Often Say That Short Stories Are Incomplete, Completely1020 Words   |  5 PagesPeople often say that short stories are incomplete, completely vague and leave the reader wondering. So if the author gives the reader an incomplete ending, will the reader ever know what truly happened to the characters? Most likely the answer is no. 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Synopsis Of The s The Great Gatsby By F. Scott...

â€Å"This is one of the stupidest plans you’ve ever had. Have you even thought this through?† You shook your head in disbelief and glared at a very annoyed Bellamy. â€Å"If you don’t like my plan, why are you here?† Bellamy sassed, rolling his dark chocolate eyes in your direction. â€Å"Pairing two kids who only agreed to get those supplies was that they wanted to use those guns! They literally hate each other’s guts!† â€Å"Well no one asked you to speak, Y/N.† Bellamy responded, not bothering to show you that he was listening to what you were saying and turned around with a smug expression plastered on his face. Bellamy definitely agreed with you on this but Kaleb and Sebastian were the only ones individually willing to go and bring back the supplies†¦show more content†¦You try to hate him, but if you were honest with yourself, you’d say that you have feelings for the handsome rebel leader. The waterfall was truly magical. It looked as though it had a secret door leading to the ocean when you stare at the aquarium blue water pounding down onto the rocks. If the water wasn’t ice cold, you’d without a doubt be floating in the blissful rock pool at the bottom. The flowers that grew on the land surrounding the waterfall were a creamy violet which smelt of sour wild berries. You head over towards a large flat rock and sat down on it to relax your legs from the long journey from camp. The rock was dented and smooth which made it extra comfortable to sit on. A little while later, you heard rustling on the sand behind you. Instinctively, you slowly slide your hands down your sides and reach your knife, taking it out of its holder which was attached to your belt for convenience for such times like this. You quickly jump off the rock and spin yourself to face†¦ Bellamy? â€Å"I thought you were a grounder, asshole.† You place your hand on your chest in an attempt to slow your fast heartbeat, putting your knife back in its holder with the other. â€Å"I should’ve said something...† â€Å"You do realise I came here to get away from you, right?† â€Å"I figured†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Bellamy let out in a whisper feeling more hurt by your comment than he expected. You raise your eyebrows at him for him to explain himself. â€Å"Do you remember when we

Social Responsibility, Consumerism, and the Marketing Concept Free Essays

string(83) " consideration of the relationship between their own needs and product attributes\." SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY, CONSUMERISM, AND THE MARKETING CONCEPT Robert D. Winsor, Loyola Marymount University ABSTRACT This paper compares the often-criticized â€Å"selling orientation† or â€Å"selling concept† with the commonly-praised â€Å"societal marketing concept â€Å"from the perspectives of consumer rationality and persuasibility. It is suggested that both orientations view consumers as relatively irrational and as easily prone to manipulation by marketers. We will write a custom essay sample on Social Responsibility, Consumerism, and the Marketing Concept or any similar topic only for you Order Now The implications of this similarity are explored from the perspectives of consumerism and social responsibility. INTRODUCTION Critics of marketing have consistently attacked the discipline for discounting consumers’ intelligence and capacity for rational choice and for deliberately confounding consumers in their efforts to make rational, informed, unbiased, and free economic choices. At the same time, societal trends have pushed U. S. businesses in the direction of increasing concern for social issues and attention to long-run consumer welfare. The aforementioned criticisms and pressures for increasing social responsibility are largely driven by the same social paradigms and constituents. Yet, it is noteworthy that the ultimate result of an expanded social responsibility of business is the concomitant diminishment of free consumer choice. Moreover, this obstruction of consumer discretion is the inevitable consequence of presumptions of consumer irrationality. Thus, while groups such as consumerists have often criticized marketers explicitly for rejecting notions of consumer rationality, these same groups and sentiments have forcefully promoted the social responsibility of business and the societal marketing concept as advancements in business thought and practice. As a result, contradictions can be seen to exist within the consumerist agenda, and are apparent (but unacknowledged) in the â€Å"societal marketing concept† and calls for increasing the responsibility of business toward social issues and concerns. The goal of this paper is to expose these contradictions and to elaborate upon their implications for business and society in general. THE EVOLUTION OF THE MARKETING CONCEPT In January of 1960, the marketing discipline entered a new age. In this year, we were presented with no ground-breaking theory, no pioneering methodology, no brilliant adaptation of another discipline’s construct, and no monumental grant. We were, however, given something we would come to treasure much more highly than any of these. We were provided a raison d’etre and a philosophical foundation. It was on this date that the Journal of Marketing published an article by Robert Keith (1960) entitled â€Å"The Marketing Revolution. And, since its publication, marketers have been able to feel justified in believing that their efforts were not only indispensable, but that they have been instrumental in bringing about sweeping improvements in the evolution of business practice. Although the revolution described by Keith has been tamed to become the â€Å"evolution† of the marketing concept, and the generalizablity of the evolution it described has been questioned by some (e. g. Fullerton, 1988), the transformation in American busi ness described by Keith’s model has nonetheless served as a source of explanation and justification for marketing academicians. The â€Å"post-evolution† marketers have been lent a degree of dignity and a sense of purpose which was conspicuously lacking before. Prior to this date, marketers were perceived to be at best superfluous, and at worst dishonest or unscrupulous. Not that the average citizen considers marketing in any different light today, but the belief in an evolution of the marketing concept has allowed the academic marketing community a certain degree of self-respect. In his article, Keith described four â€Å"eras† or periods of thought and practice through which his organization, The Pillsbury Company, progressed. Keith believed that these eras were characteristic of most businesses which were contemporaries of Pillsbury, and thus speculated that an overall movement was in evidence. Since the publication of Keith’s article, other writers have modified, refined, and extended the basic thesis advancing this evolutionary process: The most noteworthy and well-known of these descriptions is that of Philip Kotler. Kotler describes five alternative concepts or philosophies through which most businesses have evolved. Although any given business can operate under any of the philosophies, the underlying precept of the evolution thesis is that these philosophies form a hierarchy, with later philosophies being superior to those of earlier eras (Keith, 1960; Kotler, 1994). The implication is that to move from a lower level (earlier) philosophy to that on a higher level (later) is not only insightful, but also good business. The first eras or business philosophies are termed the â€Å"product† and the â€Å"production† concepts. The product concept emphasizes product quality and/or performance, and assumes that at least some consumers are knowledgeable enough to recognize and respect superior attributes in these areas. The production concept focuses upon systems for producing large volumes of products in an effort to drive down costs by exploiting economies of scale. This philosophy is based upon the assumption that most consumers not only recognize, but prefer high value (benefits – price) offerings and are knowledgeable and rational in selecting among alternative products. A later era is known as the selling concept, and is based upon the premise that consumers are relatively uninformed regarding product attributes, or base their selection upon fashion or other â€Å"non-rational† criteria. Moreover, this orientation assumes that consumers are easily influenced. As a result, organizations employing the selling concept typically resort to aggressive selling and promotional efforts, with the goal of seducing or coercing customers into purchasing the product. A considerably higher plane of enlightenment is represented by the marketing concept era. The marketing concept is considered to be a quantum leap up the evolutionary hierarchy, and continues to be embraced by a great number of marketing scholars and businesses. The marketing concept â€Å"holds that the key to achieving organizational goals consists in determining the needs and wants of target markets and delivering the desired satisfactions more effectively and efficiently than competitors† (Kotler, 1994, p. 18; 1977a). The motto of the marketing concept is â€Å"find a need and fill it,† and its credo is â€Å"The Customer is King. Like the product and production concepts, but unlike the selling concept, the marketing concept is founded upon the assumption that consumers are knowledgeable, intelligent, and rational, and base their product purchases upon a careful consideration of the relationship between their own needs and product attributes. You read "Social Responsibility, Consumerism, and the Marketing Concept" in category "Essay examples" As a resul t, the fundamental premise of the marketing concept becomes a focus on the consumer as the pivotal point for all business activity (Barksdale and Darden, 1971). The thinking underlying the marketing concept was espoused as early as the 1940’s and 1950’s (Samli, Palda, and Barker, 1987; Bell and Emory, 1971). In 1958 the term â€Å"marketing concept† was coined to describe the philosophy behind this approach (see McKitterick, 1958), and â€Å"by 1965 practically all introductory marketing texts included some discussion of the ‘new’ marketing concept† (Bell Emory, 197 1). The reason that the marketing concept was considered a major breakthrough in business philosophy is that it represented the antithesis of the product, production, and selling concepts. Rather than taking an existing product and endeavoring to modify demand for it by adding features, reducing price, or varying promotional technique, the marketing concept holds that businesses should first determine the existing needs in the marketplace and then design and produce a product to satisfy this need. In this sense the marketing concept is driven by the needs of the marketplace, rather than the existing abilities of the firm. The fifth, and supposedly highest stage of evolution in marketing philosophies is what Kotler terms the societal marketing concept. In each of his writings referencing the marketing concept, Kotler (1972, 1977b, 1994) clearly states his belief that the societal marketing concept embodies a higher and more enlightened plane of marketing thought and practice, and suggests that this new concept represents an attempt to harmonize the goals of business to the occasionally conflicting goals of society. As such, it postulates that the â€Å"the organization’s task is to determine the needs, wants, and interests of target markets and to deliver the desired satisfactions more effectively and efficiently than competitors in a way that preserves or enhances the consumer’s and society’s well-being (Kotler, 1994, p. 29). It should be noted that the societal marketing concept is founded upon one dominant and critical proposition. This is the assumption that â€Å"consumers’ wants do not always coincide with their long-run interests or society’s long-run interests,† and that, given this, marketers should place the â€Å"emphasis on ‘long-run consumer and societal well being† (Kotler, 1977b). As a result, the societal marketing concept represents an endorsement and justification for the social responsibility of business in contemporary society, and a refutation of Milton Friedman’s infamous assertion that â€Å"the social responsibility of business is to make a profit† (Friedman, 1962). THE CONSUMERISM MOVEMENT AS THE CATALYST FOR THE SOCIETAL MARKETING CONCEPT The latest consumerism movement is a cause that has been accumulating momentum for over 30 years in the U. S. , and its disciples assert that all consumers have an inherent right to products which are: safe in use (and even misuse), effective for the use designed, economical, reliable, honestly labeled and advertised, and benign in their impacts upon the environment. Moreover, consumerists have been very proactive in seeing that these â€Å"rights† are guaranteed to individual consumers, either by the firms selling the products, or by the government of this country. Adherents of consumerism tend to believe that businesses are so overwhelmingly motivated by the desire to make a profit that they commonly compromise the quality of the product offerings, thereby jeopardizing the safety of consumers. Consumerists cite examples of this â€Å"greed,† such as the Beech-Nut case involving the sale over 10 years of millions of cases of â€Å"apple juice† which was in reality only sweetened, flavored water (Business Week, 1988). The fact that such a large number and variety of these cases exist and continue to be exposed on a regular basis lends a great deal of credibility to the consumerism movement and its underlying assumptions. In explaining the rise of consumerism, Peter Drucker blamed the marketers for failing their consumers and publics in using the marketing concept: We have asked ourselves where in the marketing concept consumerism fits or belongs. I have come to the conclusion that, so far, the only way one can really define it within the total marketing concept is as the shame of the total marketing concept. It is essentially a mark of failure of the concept†¦ (Drucker, 1969) This quote is now famous to marketing practitioners, scholars, and critics alike, and the legitimacy of Drucker’s view is generally conceded. In the same year that Drucker made this accusation, Business Week (1969) also asserted that â€Å"In the very broadest sense, consumerism can be defined as the bankruptcy of what the business schools have been calling the ‘marketing concept. â€Å"‘ These condemnations of the marketing concept reflected a general assumption within both the business and academic spheres regarding the implications of consumerism’s growing popularity. A substantial portion of scholars and managers surveyed in 1971, for example, believed that the rise in consumerism was a direct reflection of the inadequacy of the marketing concept (Barksdale and Darden, 1971). As the presumed response to the failure of the marketing concept, then, the consumerist movement became the foundation for â€Å"a revised marketing concept† which Kotler (1972) proposed as the successor to the â€Å"failed† marketing concept. As in earlier stages of the marketing philosophy evolution, the â€Å"societal marketing concept† was ostensibly constructed upon the ruins of its immediate predecessor. Since the most recent consumerist movement in the U. S. served as the catalyst for today’s conceptualization and implementation of the societal marketing concept, it would seem important to understand the modern origins of this movement. ORIGINS OF THE MODERN CONSUMERISM MOVEMENT Writing in 1987, the Auto Editors of Consumer Guide described one car as â€Å"perhaps the most sophisticated (certainly one of the most ambitious) cars ever to come from Detroit† (Langworth and Robson, 1987, p. 51). These authors went on to proclaim that these were â€Å"the kind of cars we should have had in the 1970’s, and didn’t. The car was the Chevrolet Corvair of the 1960’s, and its conspicuous absence in the 1970’s was the direct result of what many consider to be both consumerism’s explosive postwar debut and also its finest hour. Indeed, the tomb of the Corvair became the foundation of consumerism as we know it today. While business historianâ€℠¢s (e. g. , Halberstam, 1986) are eager to criticize Detroit’s apparent indifference and ineptitude regarding the 1970’s invasion of small, economical automobiles from foreign countries and the oil crisis which precipitated this invasion, this blame has been clearly misplaced and undeserved. In 1959, General Motors, acknowledging an existing need in the marketplace for a small, inexpensive, sporty, and fuel-efficient automobile, designed and marketed a vehicle to fill this need. This automobile, the Corvair, was indeed revolutionary in many respects, having four-wheel independent suspension, a rear-mounted air-cooled six-cylinder engine, the option of turbo-charging (a first), and an exhaust system design which would be used on a majority of automobiles for years to come. Both the Corvair and its functional, but considerably more primitive predecessor, the Volkswagen Beetle, were designed, built, and marketed with the highest regard for the marketing concept–offering lower-income consumers the opportunity to own an economical, reliable, and fun-todrive automobile. Both cars were strong sellers, and appeared to satisfy a number of preexisting needs in the marketplace. In 1960, Consumer Reports praised the Volkswagen for its good workmanship, and handling and roadability which were â€Å"well ahead of the U. S. average†. Additionally, about the worst thing that Consumer Reports could find to say about the Corvair was a remark about its â€Å"unimpressive trim quality† (cf. Abernathy, Clark, and Kantrow, 1983). Unfortunately for many consumers, Ralph Nader would use these cars as a catapult for his career, and in so doing, would become synonymous with the consumerism movement. In 1965 he wrote a book entitled Unsafe at Any Speed, in which he criticized General Motors as being irresponsible, greedy, and unconcerned for the public’s safety. Nader used the Corvair as the book’s primary example, developing an elaborate, scathing, but also relatively misplaced criticism of the Corvair. Due to the negative publicity which the book generated, the book dealt a death blow to the Corvair, which immediately began a downward sales spiral toward its eventual extinction in 1969. Inspired by the â€Å"success† of Unsafe at Any Speed, an equivalently brutal and faulty criticism of the Volkswagen Beetle was written in 1971 by a colleague and ally of Nader, and was entitled Small—On Safety (Dodge, 197 1). Since, by the time of this book’s publication, millions of Volkswagens were on the road and were well-regarded as providing reliable, economical, and serviceable transportation, the book failed to achieve any credibility, and did little harm to Volkswagen’s sales. What should have been evident to readers of either book and to consumers in general, but was perhaps not appreciated until much later, was that it was physically impossible to construct a small economy car which was as safe as the leviathan Cadillacs, Lincolns, and Chryslers of the same period. Had a well-designed car such as the Honda Civic (or any other contemporary compact automobile) been introduced into the market in the 1960’s, it too would have certainly been labeled as unsafe, and forced off the market. THE SOCIETAL MARKETING CONCEPT AND THEORY X The societal marketing concept is largely congruent with the â€Å"multiple constituency model of organizations† (Kimery and Rinehart, 1998), and general notions of the responsibility or obligation of businesses to social and environmental stakeholders. Contrasted to the marketing concept or orientation, which posits the direct and simple relationship between organizational profitability and responsiveness to customer needs and concerns, the societal marketing concept or multiple constituency model suggests that success is highly dependent upon an organization’s attentiveness to all constituencies simultaneously (Kimery and Rinehart, 1998). Yet due to the common opposition between immediate consumer needs and long-term societal and individual needs, the simultaneous â€Å"satisfaction† of all of these demands is frequently difficult if not impossible. Moreover, the focus upon â€Å"un-stated† or long-term customer needs and a concomitant discounting of stated consumer desires have distinct overtones of corporate or governmental paternalism and the assumptions of producer or governmental sovereignty, which this perspective necessarily implies. In short, where the marketing concept is the economic equivalent of the democratic process, the societal marketing concept is antithetical to the tenets of democratic equality and more comparable to economic fascism. In an eloquent paper outlining the conceptual foundations of his societal marketing concept, Kotler adapted Douglas McGregor’s managerial â€Å"Theory X / Theory Y† to illustrate alternative perspectives of customers (Kotler, 1977b). According to McGregor, Theory X managers view their employees as being lazy, ignorant, gullible, suspicious, and disloyal. In contrast, Theory Y managers view their employees as informed, intelligent, motivated, unique, and rational (McGregor, 1957, 1985). In his adaptation, Kotler makes the assertion that businesses subscribing to the philosophy embodied within the societal marketing concept make assumptions about their customers which are consistent with Theory Y (as opposed to Theory X). In other words, Kotler believes that the societal marketing concept is philosophically consonant with a perspective of the consumer as informed, intelligent, and rational, suggesting the higher plane of enlightenment shared by adopters of this concept and alluding to the concept’s supposed capacity for consumer empowerment. Although Kotler makes a valuable contribution in adapting this managerial framework to the marketing discipline, he grossly errs in his interpretation. A far more plausible observation is that the societal marketing concept is solidly built upon Theory X assumptions about consumers on the part of the marketer. According to Kotler (1977b), â€Å"societal marketers are more attuned to the buyers’ unexpressed needs than overexpressed wants,† and place an emphasis upon â€Å"long-run consumer and societal well being. Because of this, the societal marketing concept clearly forces or compels marketers to make judgments about what is â€Å"best† for consumers, and what needs are valid (as opposed to those that are spurious or unwholesome). It is in this way that the societal marketing concept becomes the ultimate subscriber and underwriter to the Theory X mentality. The conceptual foundation of the societal marketing concept (as well as of the consumerism movement) res ts eavily upon the belief that the individual consumer is unable to â€Å"look out for him/herself,† is gullible, ignorant, easily misled, does not know what is actually in his/her own best interest, and thus needs to be protected from powerful and unscrupulous marketers. In this way, the belief that the role of the marketer is to interpret what is â€Å"best† for society and individuals necessitates the assumption that individuals do not and cannot know what is best for themselves. Nor is this an overstatement of the societal marketing concept’s goals and assumptions. Bell and Emory (1971, p. 40), proponents of this concept, assert that â€Å"The typical consumer is at such a disadvantage that he cannot assure his own effectiveness. Business has the responsibility to help him, and if business fails then the government or other parties must act on the consumer’s behalf. † In addition, in circumstances â€Å"where the buyer is unwilling or unable to make rational decisions,† Bell and Emory believe that â€Å"It is the duty of business to promote proper consumption values† (Bell Emory, 197 1, p. 40, emphasis added). Yet these are precisely the â€Å"paternalistic† attitudes which characterize the Theory X â€Å"manager† according to McGregor. The fact that some consumers may choose to buy a subcompact automobile because they prefer economy over a certain degree of safety, or that some choose to subsist on McDonald’s hamburgers, fries and milkshakes despite their â€Å"unhealthfullness† does not imply that these individuals are stupid, or gullible, or that they need to be â€Å"enlightened† by consumerism or societal marketing techniques, This is in fact the precise point at which the â€Å"evolution† of the marketing concept breaks down. The marketing concept holds that marketers should strive to supply products for every consumer need, provided these needs are not grossly threatening to society, and that â€Å"any decision the customer makes to serve his own perceived selfinterest is rational† (Bauer Greyser, 1967). It is thus impossible to interpret the societal marketing concept as anything but a move backward into the period where the selling concept ruled–where consumers were â€Å"ignorant,† â€Å"irrational,† and easily anipulated by more insightful marketers. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS While consumerists and other critics of the selling concept regularly and loudly chastise business organizations for employing marketing strategies and campaigns which are ostensibly based upon assumptions of consumer ignorance and irrationality, these same guardians of consumer interest are typically synonymous with those pushing organizations most forcefully into programs of social responsibilit y and the societal marketing concept. Yet, as noted above, the agenda of social responsibility in business is clearly based upon assumptions of equal (or even greater) degrees of consumer ignorance and irrationality. Disciples of the societal marketing concept appear to be largely oblivious to the relatively absurd levels that businesses have been pushed by forces in concert with their agenda. (Witness the warning on McDonald’s coffee cups: â€Å"Caution: HOT! . . . CAUTION: CONTENTS HOT! †¦ Caution: HOT! . . . Caution: HOT! . . . WARNING: HOT! †¦ /! .. † which are combined with a corollary reduction in the temperature of the liquid itself — actions which were necessitated by the infamous multimillion dollar legal claim against the company — a lawsuit which was applauded by numerous consumerist groups. ) But, as Levitt noted in 1958, â€Å"self-conscious dedication to social responsibility may have started as a purely defensive maneuver against strident attacks on big corporations a nd on the moral efficacy of the profit system. But defense alone no longer explains the motive. The motive for corporate social responsibility and the overwhelming push for social responsibility in the pursuit of sales now arises out of the industrial sector’s near-total dependence on social trends and the sentiment of a minority of consumers. Corporations that have been beaten into submission by frivolous lawsuits and that are afraid to arouse consumerist accusations of indifference have been forced to pander to the lowest common denominator of consumer passivity, ignorance, and laziness. As predicted by McGregor, these Theory X attitudes and actions have subsequently bred and reinforced the very passivity, ignorance, and laziness in consumers they were designed to anticipate and amend. Ironically, the similarities between the selling concept and the societal marketing concept regarding their shared assumption of consumer ignorance can be seen as forming the perfect foundation for either societal altruism or, alternatively, opportunistic exploitation. In many cases, these efforts can be difficult to distinguish from one another, and apparent acts of altruism or social responsibility can provide the perfect camouflage for exploitation. Because organizations are rapidly becoming aware of the power of â€Å"greenconsumers,† for example, there is a significant temptation to advance this agenda through the marketing program as a powerful device for cultivating customer loyalty and anesthetizing consumer prudence and vigilance. As Kotler (1994, p. 30) notes, â€Å"a number of companies have achieved notable sales and profit gains through adopting and practicing the societal marketing concept. † One of the two shining examples Kotler cites is The Body Shop, started by Anita Roddick in 1976. This organization has experienced phenomenal sales growth by actively promoting its products as all-natural, environmentally friendly, and non-animal-tested, and its business practices as sociallyconcerned. Moreover, Roddick has frequently and publicly ridiculed other cosmetics companies, noting that they are â€Å"run by men who create needs that don’t exist† (Zinn, 1991). Indeed, The Body Shop became in the 1980’s the prototype that all â€Å"earth-friendly† businesses would seek to emulate. As the vanguard of social responsibility, The Body Shop and its founder became the beneficiary of huge volumes of positive publicity, international acclaim, and consumer goodwill. Yet recent explorations into The Body Shop’s products and business practices have found elements which yield a stark contrast to the public images and perceptions noted above. Products of the company have been found to be largely petrochemical-based and of relatively poor-quality, and a large proportion of them have been tested on animals. In addition, the â€Å"socially-enlightened† business practices of this company have been exposed as creative public relations efforts, and the FTC has nvestigated the firm for fraudulent business dealings (Entine, 1993; Buszka, 1997). Clearly, it must inevitably be those organizations which are encouraged to view their consumers as ignorant or irrational that can and will most easily extend that notion to discover opportunities for exploiting that ignorance and irrationality. It is for this reason that those espousing the societal marketing concept and the social responsibility of business can be seen as the greatest danger to consum er sovereignty and consumer welfare. As Lord Acton observed, power corrupts, and absolute power corrupts absolutely. Yet it is a corollary rule that in reducing one individual’s power, all others with whom that person deals have their relative power increased. By forcing consumers into the roles of ignorant, helpless, and mindless children in need of protection and corporate welfare, advocates of the societal marketing concept have liberated consumers from both responsibility and power, and have concomitantly made business more powerful. REFERENCES Abernathy, W. Clark, and Kantrow (1983), Industrial Renaissance; Producing a Competitive Future for America, New York: Basic Books. Bauer, R. and S. Greyser (1967), â€Å"The Dialogue That Never Happens,† Harvard Business Review, (November-December), 186-190. Barksdale, Hiram C. and Bill Darden (1971), â€Å"Marketers’ Attitudes Toward the Marketing Concept,† Journal of Marketing, 35 (October), 28-36. Bell, M. and W. Emory (1971), â€Å"The Falter ing Marketing Concept,† Journal of Marketing 35, (October), (37-42). Business Week (1969), â€Å"Business Responds to Consumerism,† September 6, 95. Business Week (1988), â€Å"What Led Beech-Nut Down the Road to Disgrace,† February 2, 124-127. Buszka, Sharlene (1997), â€Å"A Case of Greewashing: The Body Shop,† in Proceedings of the Association of Management and the International Association of Management l5th Annual International Conference, Organizational Management Division, Volume 15, Number 1, 199-294. Dodge, Lowell (1972), Small–On Safety: The Designed-In Dangers of the Volkswagen, New York: Grossman. Drucker, P. (1958), â€Å"Marketing and Economic Development,† Journal of Marketing, (January), (252-259). _________(1969), Consumerism: The Opportunity of Marketing,† address before the National Association of Manufacturers, New York, April 10, later printed as â€Å"The Shame of Marketing,† Marketing Communications, August, 1969, 60. Entine, Jon (1994), â€Å"Shattered Image: Is the Body Shop Too Good to Be True? † Business Ethics, (September/October). Friedman, Milton (1962) , Capitalism and Freedom, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Fullerton, Ronald A. (1988), â€Å"How Modern is Modern Marketing? Marketing’s Evolution and the Myth of the ‘Production Era,'† Journal of Marketing, 52 (January), 108-125. Halberstam, David (1986), The Reckoning, New York: Avon Books. Keith, R. (1960), â€Å"The Marketing Revolution,† Journal of Marketing, 24(January), 35-3 8. Klein, T. (1979), â€Å"Contemporary Problems, Marketing Theory, and Futures Research,† in Conceptual and Theoretical Developments in Marketing: AMA Proceedings, 258-263. Kimery, Kathryn M. and Shelley M. Rinehart (1998), â€Å"Markets and Constituencies: An Alternative View of the Marketing Concept,† Journal of Business Research, 43, 117-124. Kotler, P. (1977a), â€Å"From Sales Obsession to Marketing Effectiveness,† Harvard Business Review (November-December), 67-75. _______(1972), â€Å"What Consumerism Means for Marketers,† Harvard Business Review, (May-June), 48-57. ________(1977b), â€Å"Considerations In a Theory of Humanistic Marketing,† Working Paper, Graduate School Of Management, Northwestern University. ________(1994), Marketing Management: Analysis, Planning, and Control, eig hth edition, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. ________, and S. Levy, (1969), â€Å"Broadening the Concept of Marketing,† Journal of Marketing, (January), 10-15. Langworth, Richard M. nd Graham Robson (1987), The Complete Book of Collectible Cars, 1930-1980, New York: Beekman House. Levitt, T. (1958), â€Å"The Dangers of Social Responsibility,† Harvard Business Review, 36, 5(September-October), 41-50. _______(1960), â€Å"Marketing Myopia,† Harvard Business Review, (July-August). _______(1977), â€Å"Marketing When Things Change,† Journal of Marketing, (NovemberDecember), 107-113. McGregor, D. (1957), â€Å"The Human Side of Enterprise,† Management Review (November), 22-28. McGregor, D. (1985), The Human Side of Enterprise, New York: McGraw-Hill. McKitterick, J. (1958), â€Å"What is the Marketing Management Concept? † in The Frontiers of Marketing Thought and Science, Chicago: American Marketing Association, 71-82. Nader, Ralph (1965), Unsafe At Any Speed: The Designed In Dangers of the American Automobile, New York: Grossman. Samli, A. , K. Palda, and A. Barker (1987), â€Å"Toward a Mature Marketing Concept,† Sloan Management Review (Winter), 45-5 1. Zinn, Laura (1991), â€Å"Whales, Human Rights, Rain Forests — And the Heady Smell of Profits,† Business Week, July 15, 114-115. How to cite Social Responsibility, Consumerism, and the Marketing Concept, Essay examples

Intra-Industry Trade In Australia Samples †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Intra-Industry Trade In Australia. Answer: Introduction Over the past decades, trade has become an important part of the modern economy. Fundamentally, trade refers to the exchange of services and goods between individuals, firms, and countries. Mainly, trade exists due to specialization and division of labor, whereby individuals and firms specialize in the production of certain goods and services. There are various forms of trade today, among them inter-industry trade and intra-industry trade. Intra-industry trade refers to the trading in similar products that belong to the same sector. In contrast, inter-industry trade (IIT) pertains to the exchange of services and goods that are dissimilar and belong to different sectors. Typically, it is trading between countries where imports and exports consist of different types of commodities. Notably, trade often exists between regions due to the fact that different regions have different resource endowments, hence possess comparative advantages in the production of certain commodities. According to the article Gas curbs will hurt LNG exports and national interests, published in The Australian, Paul Kerin explains how the LNG export restrictions that were imposed by the countrys prime minister will adversely affect intra-industry trade in the Australian economy. The new restrictions impose limitations on IIT in LNG between Australia and its trading partners. Mainly, the decision is based on the fact that LNG imports are more expensive than the exports from the country. In turn, this creates a situation where the local prices for gas are higher than the export prices from the country. Hence, it is viewed that the country is getting worse off due to trading in the product, instead of gaining significant benefits from the trade. For this reason, the government seeks to impose restrictions on the trading of the product in the country. The Concept Intra-Industry Trade Essentially, IIT arises when the Australian economy imports and exports the same type of products and services. Here, the similarity of the product is identified in terms of the sector in which the goods or service belong to (Kerin, 2017). Notably, according to the article, Australia takes part in intra-industry trade of LNG gas. The economy exports gas o countries such as US and Japan and also imports the product from them (Kerin, 2017). Over the years, IIT has become an indispensable part of the functioning of modern economies. The most basic question that arises in this form of trading is why economies of the world partake in the exchange of the same goods and services. Under the traditional economic theory, this form of trade is impossible. In the traditional model, countries engaged exclusively in inter-industry trade in order to partake in the exchange goods and services that were dissimilar. As such, exchange goods and services which the individual economies could not produce on their own due to lack of factor endowments for their production. Profoundly, this model was founded on the concept of comparative advantage, and economies only engage in the manufacturing of services and commodities in which the nation possess a competitive and comparative advantage. However, the concept of IIT allows for the trading of similar goods and services between economies. Primarily, the occurrence of trade in the same commodities can be explained using Paul Krugmans New Trade Theory. According to this theory, countries specialize in the production of services and products in order to take advantage of increasing returns. This model parts from the neoclassical view that nations produce goods and services due to regional endowments. Hence, this allows economies to produce commodities and benefit from the increasing returns that arise from trading in the commodity. More specifically, it permits nations to specialize in the production of certain goods so as to receive returns. In addition to this explanation, the Heckscher-Ohlin-Ricardo model justifies an intra-industry trade on the grounds that nations with identical resources would still engage in an exchange due to dissimilarities in the level of technology (Davis, 1995). Typically, differences in technology between countries result in specialization, thereby allowing for trade to occur between countries. In turn, different countries producing the same product engage in the trade of the product, either homogenous or slightly differentiated. Thus, this gives rise to the concept of the type of IIT which includes the exchange of homogeneous products, horizontally differentiated products or vertically differentiated goods. Today, IIT is held accountable for influencing the unexpectedly huge growth of industrial trade among most economies in the world. In fact, it is responsible for a significantly large proportion of the aggregate international trade among these economies. Types of Intra-industry Trade It is important to distinguish between the types of IIT for products and services within the economy. Horizontal intra-industry trade. Typically, this pertains to the trading in exports and imports that are categorized under one sector. In this type of trade, the commodities traded are at the same stage of processing. For instance, Australia exports natural gas to Japan and the US and also imports the same commodity from the two countries. Thus, the traded product is in the same sector at the same processing stage. Hence, according to Kerins article (2017), the Australian economy is engaging in a horizontal IIT in the import and export of LNG gas with the US and the Japanese economy. Vertical intra-industry trade. Mainly, this form of trade occurs where the exports and imports that are being traded are classified under the same sector, but at different phases of processing. For example, Australia can export crude oil to the US and import petroleum from the same country. Thus, although crude oil and petroleum are classified under the same segment, they are at different phases of production. Characteristically, this kind of trade arises mainly due to the ability of countries divide the manufacturing process into numerous stages, each undertaken at varied locations in order to take advantage of technological factors and local conditions. Characteristics of the trade It is worth noting that intra-industry trade has significantly increased over the past few years among OECD countries. Aside from the types of intra-industry trade, there are various characteristics that are pertinent to this kind of trade. Essentially, the first characteristic pertains to the fact that intra-industry trade is high among economies that are open to trading such that their imports and exports account for a significantly large proportion of their GDP. In this case, this characteristic applies to the Australian economy. Australia is the 22nd largest exporter of goods and services in the world. It is also a major importer (ABS, 2017). Secondly, this trade mainly occurs among economies that possess preferential trade agreements. Notably, the Australian economy is a member of various FTAs and has signed trade agreements with countries such as Korea, Japan, Peru, and China (McGuirik, 2017). In turn, this has increased prospects for two-way investments between the countries as well as improved the competitive position of the countrys exports. Subsequently, this has facilitated intra-industry trade. Thirdly, the trade occurs mainly for sophisticated manufactured commodities such as transport equipment, chemicals, electronics, petroleum, and oil, among others. In this case, the production and processing of oil is a sophisticated process, hereby satisfying this characteristic. Measurement of Intra-industry trade Imperatively, it is crucial to point out that IIT is somehow challenging to measure statistically. Mainly, this can be attributed to the fact categorizing products and industries as the same is mainly based on definitions and classification. However, it is often measured using various indexes such as the Aquino index, the Glesjer index, The Balassa index, the Bergstrand index and Grubel-Lloyd index. Intra-industry Trade and Comparative Advantage It can be argued that just like inter-industry trade, IIT also arises due to the existence of comparative advantage in the production of services and products among nations. Fundamentally, the very definition of IIT suggests that there is a plausible connection between the two concepts in accordance with the Ricardian determinants of trade (FPO, n.d.). However, in this case, IIT represents trading in perfectly intra-industry goods. Besides that, comparative advantage in the production of commodities brings about the need for specialization and learning. As such, firms in different economies develop unique and different skills. The past few years has seen the splitting of specialization in the world economy. Nowadays, this trend is known as splitting up the value chain. Primarily, this describes how the product is manufactured in different stages. This is made possible by the fact that improvements in communication and technology in the world have improved the process of sharing information, thereby making it possible to disintegrate the value chain. Thus, instead of production in a single factory or country, the stages of production are split up among firms in various economies. Given the fact that the value chain is disintegrated, international trade usually involves unfinished products being trade between nations. Additionally, it involves the shipping of specialized good (Intra-industry trade, n.d.). What is more, IIT between similar countries results ineconomics due to the fact that it permits the labor force and firms to innovate and learn particular products by focusing on specified stages of the val ue chain. As a result, trading countries are able to gain significant benefits from this trade. One fundamental reason why Intra-industry trade between nations results ineconomic gains involves economies of scale. Basically, this refers to the condition in which as the scale of production increases, then the average costs of production declines up to a certain degree (Intra-industry trade, n.d.). Thus, countries that possess the advantage of economies of scale have relatively lower costs of production than those economies that produce at lower production rates. In turn, the presence of variations in the degree of economies of scale between trading nations allows for differences in prices between their outputs. Sequentially, this facilitates intra-industry trade between nations. Furthermore, in IIT the level of worker productivity depends largely on how the firms in different countries engage in specific learning about specialized products. At this point, the comparative advantage between countries and firms are dynamic (Krugram, n.d.). As such, they can evolve and change over time as new skills are developed. For this reason, countries are flexible in response to the changes in the comparative advantages between economies. Analysis of the Article Primarily, Paul Kerins article (2017) shades some light to the concept of intra-industry trade in the Australian economy. Predominantly, the article reports the proposed restrictions in the level of exports from the country as announced by Prime Minister Turnbull. According to Kerin, the decision was founded on false premises and ignored fundamental concepts of intra-industry trade thereby ignoring the dynamic consequences of this decision. From the article, one can deduce that Turnbull believes that domestic buyers of LNG paid a significantly higher price for the product than the price at which the product is exported from the Australian economy. For this reason, the Prime Minister was strongly against the Intra-industry trade for the reason that it resulted in capital losses than gains for the domestic economy. Ordinarily, countries and firms engage in trade with other agents in order to receive gains from the trade in the form of increasing returns. Thus, in this case, the basic reason for conducting IIT in gas between Australia and nations like Japan is not achieved. Mainly, this is due to the fact that domestic users of the product are affected by the fact that the local prices for the product in the country are higher than the export price (Intra-industry trade, n.d.). In turn, this implies that the Australian consumers of would be better off if the exports from the country were not exported, but instead diverted to the domestic market. According to the article, the domestic gas prices in the country do not reflect the international prices. More specifically, the domestic prices for the product are higher than the export prices and other international prices in the market. The netback prices of the exports are below the netback price on sales into major domestic destination hubs. Thus, although LNG is a tradable product, it possesses the characteristics of non-tradable resources. Ineconomic theory, a non-tradable product is one whose export price is lower than the domestic costs. In turn, this makes it irrational to sell the product at a lower price in the international market at the expense of the local market. In this regard, Turnbull is justified to advocate for the imposition of restrictions on exports from the country in order to protect domestic consumers from hiked prices. In his report, Turnbull insists that the Australian government is still committed to LNG exports, but this should not be done at the expense of the economys interest. He believes that it is better to save the supply of gas produced in the country in order to lower the local prices for the commodity. Fundamentally, this decision can be supported by economic theory such that it is better to secure lower prices for the product in the country. Predominantly, this is because high gas prices in the country have a ripple effect in the price level of other commodities in the economy because it is used in the production of other goods in the economy. Thus, high local prices for gas would force producers to pay more for the product, causing them to transfer these costs to the prices of their final output. Consequently, high prices of locally produced commodities would further reduce their competitiveness in the international market. In this regard, the decision to restrict exports of gas from the country is largely justified. However, proponents of interindustry trade strongly oppose this move. Instead, they propose that there are better ways to maintain domestic prices low. According to Kerin (2017), the government can control prices through improved regulation of gas pipelines in the country. Essentially, this is due to the fact that it accounts for a significant proportion of domestic end-user prices. In addition, he argues that the government can increase and enable new sources of gas supply in the country, thereby build and enhance the level of competition in the economy. Fundamentally, he proposes that instead of imposing restrictions on exports, restrictions be uplifted. Subsequently, a free market for gas would respond in the form of forces of demand and supply to keep the domestic prices in check. In addition to this, the removal of restrictions would make exports more competitive than imports in the local market. Consequently, this would allow the economy to reap benefits from intra-industry tra de with Japan on gas. It is noteworthy that Turnbull claims that the restrictions are temporary, and would be removed as soon as the domestic conditions in the gas market improve. Contrary to this view, Milton Friedman was of the opinion that most temporary programs initiated by the government are often permanent. For this reason, it would be misguiding to believe that the proposed restrictions would be temporary. Additionally, this also implies that imposing these restrictions on exports may become permanent, thereby worsening the intra-trade conditions in the country over the long term period. In turn, this would lock out the Australian economy from enjoying the benefits associated with intra-industry trade in gas related products. Thus, it is imperative to note that the proposed reductions in the short term prices through the imposition of restrictions on gas exports may work only over the short term period. However, the extension of the policy of the long term period would adversely affect intra-industry trade between Australia and its trading partners, as it would act as a significant barrier to free trade, which is imperative for the system to work. Besides that, this strategy would result in reluctance on the side of the government to initiate better methods to regulate pipelines and increase the supply of the commodity in the country. In turn, this would further worsen the trade conditions in the Australian economy. Profoundly, this would force the Australian economy to forego the benefits associated with free inter-trade and intra-trade in the economy. In this regard, the Australian government should restrict from imposing export restrictions and allow the market to readjust itself. This way, the nation would be able to reap the benefits of conducting in intra-industry trade in gas and associated products. Conclusion It is imperative to point out the fact that international trade has become a fundamental part of the operation of the modem economy. Nowadays, countries and firms take part in inter-industry and intra-industry trade. While inter-industry trade involves the exchange of different goods and services that belong to different sectors, intra-industry trade pertains to the exchange of commodities that are characteristically similar and belong to the same sector (Economics of Free Trade, n.d.). Predominantly, intra-industry trade arises due to the existence of variations in the level of technology, tastes and preferences of the consumers, and comparative advantages arising from economies of scale. Mainly, different countries engage in the production of similar products and trade in them in order to gain from the increasing returns resulting from the trade of these commodities. Thus, just like intra-industry trade, intra-industry trade is equally profitable for countries to engage in (Economi cs of Free Trade, n.d.). Notably, the Australian economy engages in both inter-industry trade and intra-industry trade with other nations. According to the article by Paul Kerin (2017), the economy engages in intra-industry trade in LNG gas. However, recently, the prime minister proposed an imposition of restrictions on the level of gas exports from the country following significantly high prices of imports compared to the low-priced exports from the country. Essentially, this decision would adversely affect the level of intra-industry trade between Australia and Japan, as it would reduce the volume of exports traded in the international market. As a result, this would lock out the economy from receiving the increasing returns associated with trading in the international market. Thus, the government should restrain from imposing the proposed restrictions in order to keep benefitting from the intra-industry trade in the commodity. References Davis, D. R. (1995). Intra-industry trade: A Heckscher-Ohlin-Ricardo approach. Journal of International Economics. 39 (3/4): 201226. Economics of free trade agreements not always black and white. [Online] Drive. Available at https://www.drive.com.au/federal-politics/political-opinion/economics-of-free-trade-agreements-not-always-black-and-white-zqrt9.html [Accessed 31 May 2017] Grimwade, Nigel (2000). International Trade: New Patterns of Trade, Production Investment (Second ed.). New York: Routledge International Trade. [Online] Australian Bureau of Statistics. Available at https://www.abs.gov.au/international-trade [Accessed 31 May 2017] Intra-industry Trade between Similar Economies. [Online] Open Text Book. Available at https://opentextbc.ca/principlesofeconomics/chapter/33-3-intra-industry-trade-between-similar-economies/ [Accessed 31 May 2017] Kerin, P. (2017). Gas curbs will hurt LNG exports and national interests. [Online] The Australian. Available at https://www.theaustralian.com.au/business/opinion/gas-curbs-will-hurt-lng-exports-and-national-interests/news-story/8eaa31b4a4cdafb33bc82601023ad80b [Accessed 31 May 2017] Krugman, P. (2017). Australia and Peru to begin negotiating free trade agreement. [Online] Princeton University. Available at https://www.princeton.edu/~pkrugman/Intraindustry.pdf [Accessed 31 May 2017] Krugman, Paul; Obstfeld, Maurice (1991). International Economics: Theory and Policy (Second ed.). New York: Harper Collins. McGuirik, R. (2017). Australia and Peru to begin negotiating free trade agreement. [Online] ABC. Available at https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/australia-peru-begin-negotiating-free-trade-agreement-47580565 [Accessed 31 May 2017] The significance of intra-industry trade as a cause and consequence of global environment: New Zealand and her European, Pacific, and Asian partners. [Online] FPO. Available at https://www.freepatentsonline.com/article/Management-International-Review/17415959.html [Accessed 31 May 2017] Why do countries trade? [Online] Economics Online. Available at https://economicsonline.co.uk/Global_economics/Why_do_countries_trade.html [Accessed 31 May 2017].

Math Equations free essay sample

This paper will show two mathematical problems, the first is â€Å"To estimate the size of the bear population on the Keweenaw Peninsula, conservationists captured, tagged, and released 50 bears. One year later, a random sample of 100 bears included only 2 tagged bears. What is the conservationists estimate of the size of the bear population? † (Dugopolski, 2013, pp. 37, probem 56). The second will be to complete problem 10 on page 444 of Elementary and Intermediate Algebra. Here all steps in solving the problem will be explained step by step. The first problem is to estimate the size of the bear population located on the Keweenaw Peninsula conservation. In reading over the â€Å"Bear Population† method #56 on page 437you will notice we are to assume that the ratio of originally tagged bears to the whole population is equal to the ratio of recaptured bears to the size of the sample. The ratio of the originally tagged bears to the whole population is 2100 The ration of the recaptured tagged bears to the sample size is 50x 2100=50x Since x is on the right-hand side of the equation, we need to switch the sides so it is on the left-hand side. We will write a custom essay sample on Math Equations or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page 50x=2100 This is the proportion set up and ready to solve. I will cross multiply setting the extremes equal to the means. 100(50) = 2x Here 100 and 50 are the extreme, while x and 2 are the means. 0002=22 Next we must divide each term in the equation by 2. X=50002 Cancel out the common factor X=2500 The bear population in Keweenaw Peninsula is estimated to be around 2500. For the second problem in this assignment I am asked to solve this equation for y. The first thing I notice is that it is a single fraction (ratio) on both sides of the equal sign so basically it is a proportion which can be solved by cross multiplying the extremes and means. y-1)=-34*((x+3))Multiply both sides of the equation by (x+3) (y-1)=-34*(x+3)Remove the extra parentheses (y-1) = -3(x+3)4Multiply the rational expressions to get 3(x+3)4 y-1= -3(x+3)4Remove the parentheses around the expression y-1 Since -1 does not contain the variable solve for, move it to the right-hand side of the equation by adding 1 to both sides. y=1 *44 3(x+3)4Multiply each term by a factor of 1 that will equate all the denominators. In this case, all terms need a denominator of 4. = 14 (-1*4) 3(x+3)4Multiply the expression by a factor of 1 to create the least common denominator (LCD) of 4. y= 44 3(x+3)4 Multiply 1 by 4 to get 4. y = 4-3(x+3)4 The numerators of expressions that have equal denominators can be combined. In this case, (4)4 and 3(x+3)4 have the same denominator of 4, so the numerators can be combined. y = 4-3 (x+3)4 Remove the parentheses around the expression 4. y = 4-3 x-3 (3)4 Multiply -3 by each term inside the parentheses (x-3). = 4-3 *x-3 (3)4 Multiply -3 by the x inside the parentheses. y = 4-3 x-3 (3)4 Multiply -3 by x to get – 3x. y = 4-3 x-3* 34 Multiply -3 by the 3 inside the parentheses. y = 14 (4-3x-9) Multiply -3 by 3 to get -9. y = 14 (-5 -3x) Subtract 9 from 4 to get -5 y = 14 (-3x -5) Reorder the polynomial -5 -3x alphabetically from left to right, starting with the highest order term. y = 14 (-3x-5)Simplify the right-hand side of the equation. Here I have notice that the solution for y = 14 (-3x-5) but the equation for x is different and x as a rational expression is (y-1)  · 4=-3  · (x+3) which is solved by which is solved by a ration. Simplify the equation for x = 4y3 53 . Another thing I have learned is if you go from x = y to x^2 = y^2 you have introduced the extraneous root. References: Dugopolski, M. (2013). Elementary and Intermediate Algebra, 4th Ed. New York, NY: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Math Equations free essay sample This paper will show two mathematical problems, the first is â€Å"To estimate the size of the bear population on the Keweenaw Peninsula, conservationists captured, tagged, and released 50 bears. One year later, a random sample of 100 bears included only 2 tagged bears. What is the conservationists estimate of the size of the bear population? † (Dugopolski, 2013, pp. 37, probem 56). The second will be to complete problem 10 on page 444 of Elementary and Intermediate Algebra. Here all steps in solving the problem will be explained step by step. The first problem is to estimate the size of the bear population located on the Keweenaw Peninsula conservation. In reading over the â€Å"Bear Population† method #56 on page 437you will notice we are to assume that the ratio of originally tagged bears to the whole population is equal to the ratio of recaptured bears to the size of the sample. The ratio of the originally tagged bears to the whole population is 2100 The ration of the recaptured tagged bears to the sample size is 50x 2100=50x Since x is on the right-hand side of the equation, we need to switch the sides so it is on the left-hand side. We will write a custom essay sample on Math Equations or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page 50x=2100 This is the proportion set up and ready to solve. I will cross multiply setting the extremes equal to the means. 100(50) = 2x Here 100 and 50 are the extreme, while x and 2 are the means. 0002=22 Next we must divide each term in the equation by 2. X=50002 Cancel out the common factor X=2500 The bear population in Keweenaw Peninsula is estimated to be around 2500. For the second problem in this assignment I am asked to solve this equation for y. The first thing I notice is that it is a single fraction (ratio) on both sides of the equal sign so basically it is a proportion which can be solved by cross multiplying the extremes and means. y-1)=-34*((x+3))Multiply both sides of the equation by (x+3) (y-1)=-34*(x+3)Remove the extra parentheses (y-1) = -3(x+3)4Multiply the rational expressions to get 3(x+3)4 y-1= -3(x+3)4Remove the parentheses around the expression y-1 Since -1 does not contain the variable solve for, move it to the right-hand side of the equation by adding 1 to both sides. y=1 *44 3(x+3)4Multiply each term by a factor of 1 that will equate all the denominators. In this case, all terms need a denominator of 4. = 14 (-1*4) 3(x+3)4Multiply the expression by a factor of 1 to create the least common denominator (LCD) of 4. y= 44 3(x+3)4 Multiply 1 by 4 to get 4. y = 4-3(x+3)4 The numerators of expressions that have equal denominators can be combined. In this case, (4)4 and 3(x+3)4 have the same denominator of 4, so the numerators can be combined. y = 4-3 (x+3)4 Remove the parentheses around the expression 4. y = 4-3 x-3 (3)4 Multiply -3 by each term inside the parentheses (x-3). = 4-3 *x-3 (3)4 Multiply -3 by the x inside the parentheses. y = 4-3 x-3 (3)4 Multiply -3 by x to get – 3x. y = 4-3 x-3* 34 Multiply -3 by the 3 inside the parentheses. y = 14 (4-3x-9) Multiply -3 by 3 to get -9. y = 14 (-5 -3x) Subtract 9 from 4 to get -5 y = 14 (-3x -5) Reorder the polynomial -5 -3x alphabetically from left to right, starting with the highest order term. y = 14 (-3x-5)Simplify the right-hand side of the equation. Here I have notice that the solution for y = 14 (-3x-5) but the equation for x is different and x as a rational expression is (y-1)  · 4=-3  · (x+3) which is solved by which is solved by a ration. Simplify the equation for x = 4y3 53 . Another thing I have learned is if you go from x = y to x^2 = y^2 you have introduced the extraneous root. References: Dugopolski, M. (2013). Elementary and Intermediate Algebra, 4th Ed. New York, NY.

How to Find a Great Medical Assistant Certification Program

How to Find a Great Medical Assistant Certification Program Are you friendly, informative, and courteous? Can you be patient-oriented even in a high-stress atmosphere? Are you able to be on your feet, performing administrative tasks, taking vitals, completing medical histories and undertaking other clinical work? Then medical assisting might be a great career to consider. What do you need to know before picking out the right medical assistant program for you?  Jack Billings over at MyCareertopia has some advice for aspiring medical assistants on great questions to ask when selecting a program of study.Is financial aid available?This is a terrific question for anyone going to (or back to) school to ask. With the growth the field is currently experiencing, you should be seriously skeptical about any program that doesn’t offer you any kind of financial assistance to take their classes. Give the school a call if you can’t find easy access to it on the website.How long is the program?Depending on your level of flexibility, time and $-wise, the time it takes to complete a program may vary. Usually they’ll take a year, or closer to two years if it’s an associate degree program, as well.What does the curriculum contain?While every program may title its courses slightly differently, you’re looking for hands-on training, classroom and lecture-based classes, and disciplines such as pharmacology, human anatomy, physiology, medical law and ethics, medical terminology, cording and billing practices, lab techniques, diagnostics, and computer application training. Any school that promises to prepare you without offering these basics isn’t doing serious business.Is there a practicum or clinical externship?A medical assistant program worth your time will offer you a chance to gain on the job experience. You’ll have an opportunity to spend 3-6 weeks in a hands-on workplace, bringing your training into the real world and helping you make important professional relationships.Is there a Care er Services department?You’ll want to know going in that after you graduate, there will be support for your growing  career. Find out what kind of services the office provides, how big the department is, and if you can talk with a staff member as an incoming student.

CD 361 - Language Development in Children - Essay

CD 361 - Language Development in Children - - Essay Example It is quite easy to understand the aspects of information delivery as defined in the article. The article offers a remedy to each dishonest use of information. The article depicts the significance of music in learning by showing how music influences the mind/brain. Moreover, the article confirms that listening to music derives fundamental cerebral advantages that enhance learning by activating neurons and maintaining synapses. The article uses relevant examples and diverse research to show how music improves learning by supporting hemispheric synchronization and enhancing brain coherence. The article resides on a scholarly journal. The authors are scholars with fundamental impact on human growth and consciousness. Professionals and students are the target audience for this article. I am not aware of other works that relate to this source. The work is highly relevant to the selected topic where it derives major contribution to the hypothesis. The book addresses the causes of attention deficit hyperactivity. The book defines the significance of music and other therapies on learning. The book recommends music to children with attention deficit hyperactivity and learning challenges. Indeed, the book defines the scientific basis for music in enhancing learning and attention among children. The author, Gordon Millichap is a medical professor. Medicine students and professionals like neurologists, nurses, psychologists, tutors, and thespians are the target audience for this book. This work relates to the above source since it defines how various aspects of the brain influences attention deficit hyperactivity in children. As such, the work is highly relevant to language development in children and contributes to the hypothesis. The site defines how music education prepares students to learn, facilitates student academic achievement, and develops the creative capacities for lifelong success. The site relied on quality and evidence-based

Explanatory essay assignment sheet marijuana and tobaco

Explanatory assignment sheet marijuana and tobaco - Essay Example Most governments in the world set big budgets to fight smoking habits instead of using the funds in other sectors that can improve the general lifestyles of their citizens. This paper analyses the relationship between marijuana and tobacco as well as their respective effects on human health. Smoking marijuana and tobacco have almost similar effects and characteristics in terms of their usage and consequences. The majority of smokers begin smoking at teenage and the addiction intensifies when they become adults and at this stage, it becomes very difficult to quit the habit (Williams and Williams 327). People smoke for different reasons such as the need for adolescent to look mature, peer influence and finally to try out. The fact that most old people such as parents and relatives smoke lures the children also to smoke so that they can also look mature. Children may at times be involved in smoking if they see their friends and their peers smoke perhaps to be accepted. People have the tendency of experimenting prohibited things so that they can actually find out the reason for it being outlawed. Parents and the government normally prohibit smoking among children hence making the children sneak away and smoke (Malmberg et al. 1512-1520). It is however interesting to note that grown-ups smoke for some reasons different from the children such as relieving them from stress and pressures due to economic or personal problems. Adults feel that smoking make them feel relaxed or boost their energy as they undergo difficulties such as family burdens or relationship challenges. Adolescent stage is the right age of ascertaining whether a child will be a heavy smoker or not by paying much attention on their behaviors (Williams and Williams 327). Marital status according to the HSCIC plays a significant role in smoking where most smokers are reported to be divorced, separated, or unmarried. However,

Human cloning

Human cloning Brief History In 1952, the first successful animal cloning took place when Robert Briggs and Thomas J.King cloned a tadpole. After almost four decades, the first cloned mammal, a sheep named Dolly, was born in 1996. Following the creation of Dolly, scientists started to think about developing human clones. However, scepticism and hesitation began to grow among scientists when Dolly died at the age of six in 2003. This event, combined with the religious communitys disapproval of human cloning, resulted in the enactment of the Human Cloning Prohibition Act of 2009. According to this law, human cloning is unethical, immoral, and unlawful; hence, it is illegal. Today, human cloning is banned in 23 countries. Nevertheless, pro-cloning scientists and researchers are seeking to legalise human cloning in order to progress research and achieve more in this field (Naik, 2010). Introduction Do not come down for or against cloning until you have consulted it stated David Sharp in the New Statesman (2000). What Michael Bay, the Hollywood director, eloquently shows in his sci-fi film, The Island, is what many people in the 21st century are debating. This movie brilliantly portrays the type of influences that a human cloning factory can have on society. A mother becomes pregnant and delivers her baby, but her life will be terminated by scientists because she is just a clone of the original mother who could not become pregnant or who did not want to go through the pain of being pregnant. The human cloning technology that is shown in the movie has not been reached yet. However, what this movie is trying to show is the selfishness of mankind who is willing to spend considerable amounts of money in order to create genetically identical replicas of themselves and massacre the self-made clones to fulfil their own goals in life like having a baby, undergoing organ transplantation, etc. This is one of the most controversial issues in the world today. After creation of Dolly (the sheep clone) by Ian Willmut and colleagues at the Roslin Institute in Scotland, which was a great success in animal cloning, the debate about the concept of cloning, both scientifically and ethically, was raised among scientists (Bose, 2009). However, the main debate today is whether humans should be cloned or not. In order to realise why some views are against and some are for this issue, it is important to know some background about this concept first. Background The simplest explanation of human cloning is that it is the production of a replicate (clone) of a human being asexually and without any fertilisation of sperms and eggs (Bose, 2009). The technique used in cloning is called somatic (non-sex) cell nuclear transfer (SCNT). Through SCNT, the nucleus of an egg is removed and replaced by the nucleus of the donor (who wants to be cloned), which is already isolated from the donor cell. An electrical shock (or, sometimes, the application of chemicals) results in the fusion of the donor nucleus and the host egg, which, in turn, starts the cell division process. When the cell division reaches a certain limit (blastocyst developed), it is embedded in the surrogate mothers uterus by in vitro fertilisation. This method of cloning, which was also used to create Dolly, is known as reproductive cloning (Bose, 2009). It is important to bear in mind that artificial insemination, in vitro fertilisation (IVF), and cryopreservation are all known as standard reproductive cloning techniques. However, the aforementioned technologies involve sexual reproduction of the embryo, i.e. fertilisation of sperms and eggs. In cloning, SCNT technology is used in the first phase in order to asexually produce a zygote (with fusion, not fertilisation) and next through the in vitro fertilisation technique; the resultant blastocyst (early embryo) is implanted in the mothers womb only if the aim is to produce a human being (reproductiove cloning), otherwise the blastocyst is used to extract stem cells from it (therapeutic cloning) which these cells, in turn, grow into various types of cells, such as pancreatic or nerve cells as demonstrated in Figure 2. (Wilmut et al., 2001) Another type of cloning is called therapeutic cloning. As explained above, in this case, after the fusion of patients (donors) nucleus with the hosts egg and development of blastocyst, the inner cell layer of the blastocyst, which is full of undifferentiated stem cells, is used for stem cell research. Therefore, in therapeutic cloning and unlike reproductive cloning, the embryo is not embedded into the mothers uterus and, instead, it is used to isolate stem cells from it as shown in Figure 1 and 2 (Explorestemcells, 2010). These stem cells could then be used within different human body organs, such as the liver, heart, and skin. The advantage of using this method is that since the stem cells have been developed from the nucleus of the patient (i.e., have the same genetic information), the new developed organ will be used to replace the dysfunctional patients organ without the patients body rejecting the new organ (Bose, 2009). Many scientists believe that, with therapeutic cloning and embryonic stem cell research, many disorders, especially degenerative nervous system diseases like Alzheimers and Parkinsons can be treated. This is a very big promise that one can give to the mankind; however, the ethical issues related to this study must not be neglected (Bose, 2009). The benefits and problems of using these two main types of cloning are more discussed in the scientific issues section later on in this dissertation. Nevertheless, there are important realities that must be uncovered about human cloning. It is important to understand that a clone can never be a perfect copy of the donor. Although the genetic material in the nucleus of the donor is used to create the clone, the mitochondrial DNA of the donor is not passed onto the clone. Also, the environment and experiences that builds up someones character would be different for the donor and his/her clone (Bose, 2009). Due to the lack of sexual reproduction of the clone, it would not have biological parents and he/she would always be called a clone of the DNA donor instead of a son or daughter of the donor. However, like any other human being, it will start its life as a baby despite the fact that it is generated from the cell of an adult (Bose, 2009). The act of human cloning (reproductive cloning) is banned in many countries today; however, some countries like the UK have legalised human cloning research only for therapeutic purposes. Furthermore, even therapeutic cloning is not completely allowed in many countries as most of the religious organisations are against diverting the fate of an embryo in any form and for any purpose (Bose, 2009). The question that may be raised is why anyone would want to clone a human in the first place. There are four different reasons why some people desire to clone a defunct or living person. There are people who would like simply to replicate themselves. This may be due to the fact that some might think that, by cloning themselves, they will become immortal somehow. This argument clearly shows that it is arisen from a wrong interpretation of cloning. Others might want to be cloned just because they are vain. Some want to replace their deceased loved ones by cloning them. For instance, this could be parents who desire to clone a child and use the cloned child as an organ donor for their dying child or to replace that child. Others believe that, with this technology, famous people can be recreated. Some of the nominees were Einstein, Mozart, Ghandi and Marilyn Monroe. Finally, human cloning can bring another option to provide an opportunity for infertile couples, including homosexuals, to have their own genetic child. However, at present, none of these suggestions are technically practical. For example, of course, it is impossible to reproduce Ghandi as his DNA is probably decayed a long time ago. Nevertheless, what Ghandi did throughout humankind made him the outstanding Ghandi rather than his actual body (Wilmut et al., 2001). To date, there has not been any success in cloning human beings despite several announcements from different scientists like Panayiotis Zavos in 2001 (Bose, 2009). In the next sections, the pros and cons of human cloning will be discussed both in terms of ethical and scientific implications which will make it easier to formulate a logical opinion about this issue. Discussion Ethical issues There are many ethical concerns, surrounding human cloning, and there is no consensus yet about these ethical issues. Most of the ethical implications are theological concerns and different religious views that believe that human cloning is the act of changing what God wants and changing the way human babies would normally born. Many religious organisations believe that the embryo must be considered as a human being and the act of therapeutic cloning, where stem cells are extracted from the embryo, therefore, is the same as murdering a human being. As a result of this belief, what many people are against about human cloning is the act of terminating one persons life in order for another person to live longer (Putatunda, 2007). This so-called instrumentalization view states, with regard to therapeutic cloning, that embryos must not be treated like an instrument and be produced only to help others to survive, but they should have an opportunity to experience the life like any other hum an beings who were an embryo (Kuhse Singer, 2006). Many views concern the social problems that human cloning may create. There is, no doubt that, a child who is created through cloning would face countless challenges in society. How such a child can grow up in a society where there are notand never wereany parents for him/her is a real challenge. The criminal misuse of this technology and insulting human dignity by creating human clones for other reasons can influence human values in society in many destructive ways (Bose, 2009). Some of the other morally argumentative discussions are raised against the inhumanity side of human cloning. Some of the main ethical dilemmas are whether human beings have the right to have children regardless of how they are created or whether it is moral to replace our defective organs with the new healthy ones from clones. Terminating the life of an embryo in order to isolate stem cells from them in therapeutic cloning is condemned by some humanitarian organisations (Putatunda, 2007). The next sections will discuss specific segments that relate to ethical issues on human cloning. These sections cover some of the main views on using embryos and stem cells in therapeutic purposes, and a brief overview of different perspectives on the concept of human dignity, autonomy, and reproductive cloning. About embryos The current UK rules and regulations states that embryos more than fourteen days old must not be used in research. This does not mean that a balostocyst younger than two weeks should not be respected. In fact, the rules clearly state that early embryos should be used in research only if there are no alternatives, such as adult stem cells, and only with consent. A precise record keeping must also be carried out to ensure that all embryos are treated the same (Wilmut et al., 2007). On the other hand, from a different perspective and as opposed to what many theological associations believe, the embryo is just a ball of cells and must not be considered to be a person. In other words, the embryo is not equivalent to a human being and, as a result of this, human rights should not apply to a bunch of cells that have no brain, personality, character, self-awareness, memory, etc. Therefore, the act of therapeutic cloning is not immoral as it uses a bunch of cells that contain DNA like human s kin cells to extract stem cells from and save thousands of lives. It only becomes wrong when the embryo is starting to develop a brain (mental life) and shows the appearance of the capacity to think. However, at this stage, an embryo is just a cluster of cells (Putatunda, 2007). Therefore, whilst many people believe that an embryo has the potential to become a human and, hence, must be respected, others believe that this does not mean that just because the embryo has this potential and must be authorised to have the same rights as a person. As John Harris stated in The Value of Life, We are all potentially dead but that does not mean we should be treated as if we are dead (Wilmut et al., 2007). As a result of this, many scientists justify the use of blastocysts in research. Nevertheless, this, in turn, raises other uncertainties like whether the blastocyst is aware or whether the blastocyst feels pain (Wilmut et al., 2007). Therapeutic cloning and stem cells In order to rationally investigate the ethical issues surrounding therapeutic cloning using embryonic stem cells in research and therapy, it is important to briefly look at some of the main ethical issues raised over the past few years. Technically, stem cells can be isolated from adults (e.g. skin), from umbilical cord blood, from foetal tissue, and from embryonic tissue. However, scientists believe that embryos are the best sources of stem cells for therapeutic cloning today. Therefore, this raises the question of whether, in future, embryos will be created just to be used as a source to harvest stem cells. Another issue that has been raised by the European Group on Ethics is the womans right since mothers are the means necessary to create embryos. There are also issues regarding the anonymity and security of the donors and the confidentiality of their genetic information. The commercial uses and transport of the donated tissues and genetic material globally, which could result in many criminal cases are crucial issues which are linked to peoples safety and security and must be attentively considered (Kuhse Singer, 2006). A similar debate is currently taking place, in the UK, on whether everyones DNA must be kept on the database or only criminals DNA. Replication not reproduction With regard to reproductive cloning, since creating an individual using SCNT technology is a process of replication and not reproduction, some believe that this is not natural and completely disregards human dignity. However, this might be a kind of eluding technique that especially political systems would use nowadays in order to avoid the controversial arguments that surround an issue, such as human cloning. It is always easier to justify a banning policy by claiming that a particular law is issued due to breaching human dignity moralities rather than basing it on religious views (Caulfield, 2003). Eugenics, human dignity and autonomy In addition, the autonomy and uniqueness of an individual are other factors that must be considered. The genetic information of a person is what makes the person unique and different from others. From the human dignity defenders perspective, who believe autonomy and uniqueness are the precursors of human dignity, the act of reproductive cloning not only disregards the clones autonomy, but it also ruins the uniqueness of the donor, which is unacceptable and immoral. Again, some might say these arguments are scientifically wrong as genomes role in human uniqueness is only in terms of human appearance and not personalities in terms of defining individuals. Hence, the act of copying someones genome does not necessarily ruin his/her uniqueness or his/her human dignity. For example, identical twins dignity and uniqueness are not jeopardised only because of having identical genomes (Williamson, 1999). Reproductive cloning Apart from the social and religious views, some scientist involved in cloning and embryology researches like Ian Wilmut and Richard Gardner have clearly explained some of the serious ethical problems that human cloning can bring about. For example, with regard to the act of reproductive cloning, there is still lack of sufficient and satisfactory amount of knowledge in order to clone a human being (as explained below). Reproductive cloning has yet to be completely proved by scientists. Even during the process of creating Dolly, 272 embryos were wasted. In other words, Dolly was created after trying to clone a sheep 272 times. .This means that 272 embryos for various reasons were either not developed normally or were eliminated for being imperfect. From those embryos that were developed properly, some of them miscarried and a significant number of the sheep born were severely abnormal and, as a result of this, died shortly after delivery or had to be euthanized (Wilmut et al., 2001). To date, no clone including Dolly has lived to a ripe old age. Dolly was euthanized by lethal injection as she had been suffering from lung cancer and crippling arthritis and died at the age of six. This happened whilst most Finn Dorset sheep live to the age of 11 or 12. Just imagining treating a human embryo the same way would create so many ethical dilemmas (HGPI, 2009). Scientific issues Human cloning is not as simple as just replicating a person. There are various scientific and technological obstacles to performing this study. In terms of science, human cloning has its own benefits and problems, especially therapeutic cloning. One of the main advantages of using stem cells isolated from embryos is that the cells are pluripotent. This means that these cells are able to differentiate into any cell type in the human body except embryo cells. Hence, pluripotent cells have the potential to grow and produce healthy organs or to treat any body organ (tissue) diseases by replacing defective cells; for instance, this could involve using pluripotent cells to replace abnormal red blood cells in sickle-celled anaemia disease or to replace damaged heart tissue, thereby preventing cardiovascular diseases (Explorestemcells, 2010). Another major benefit of therapeutic cloning is that, as mentioned in the introduction, since the patients own genetic material is used to produce the cloned embryo and stem cells isolated from it, the risk of rejection by the immune system of the patient during organ transplantation is reduced. Otherwise, if the cells are from another donor, the patients immune system would recognise the foreign proteins on the transplanted cells and start to attack these cells and reject the transplanted organ (Explorestemcells, 2010). Therapeutic cloning can also help scientists to progress in stem cell research, which, in turn, will open many doors to treating different diseases (Explorestemcells, 2010). Furthermore, gene therapy is one of the major development procedures that can be achieved by cloning. Gene therapy allows the replacement of defective and abnormal genes with healthy and normal ones. Rejuvenation is another factor that many scientists believe can be achieved through production of clone tissues (Pakhare, 2007). One of the main advantages of using reproductive cloning is infertility treatment. Through human cloning technology, many infertile couples can have a chance to have a child without going through many painful procedures that are currently used for infertile couples (Pakhare, 2007). This is due to the fact that, in reproductive cloning, the fusion of sex cells is not involved and, instead, SCNT methods are used. However, some of these positive features mentioned about human cloning are just a theory like rejuvenation, and it is not completely approved by all scientists. Human cloning is not as simple as just replicating a person. There are various scientific and technological obstacles to performing this study. A number of drawbacks and risks from using human cloning are mentioned below. Risks One of the main problems of using therapeutic cloning is that the success rate in producing a viable egg is very low. As explained in the case of Dolly, 277 SCNT attempts took place to create a stable, fused egg that resulted in a somewhat viable offspring. Statistics shows that almost 90% of the attempts to produce viable animal clones have failed (Pakhare, 2007). This shows that the cloning technology of today is not very highly advanced and the process of SCNT is not as easy as it may sound. It also means that cloning, especially with this high rate of failure, could be a very expensive technique. It can take hundreds of attempts and thousands or even millions of dollars to attain a viable zygote (Explorestemcells, 2010). Furthermore, the cloned animals tend to die prematurely after cloning. This is due to their fragile immune system, which results in the progression of many disorders and infectious activities after creation, such as tumours, arthritis (in Dolly), etc. Some of the cloned animals die early because they have Large Offspring Syndrome in which their organs are abnormal and often larger than their counterparts organs. This results in the disorganisation of metabolic activities, which, in turn, leads to the development of many other disturbances and, ultimately, causes death (Pakhare, 2007). Another risk of cloning that concerns scientists is the telomere shortening mechanism. Telomeres are DNA sequences located at either ends of chromosomes, which shorten in sequence each time DNA replication occurs. Hence, the overall length of chromosome is reduced after each replication. Studies show that, as the animals (or humans) age increases, its telomeres contract further (Betts et al., 2006). Therefore, the clone that arises from a nucleus, taken from an old donor through SCNT, must die early as the chromosomes of this newly created clone are already old (Yang et al., 2000). For instance, in the case of Dolly, the chromosomes seemed to have been shrunk and, hence, it aged faster than its counterparts. However, this phenomenon is still not completely proven as, in some cases, such as in a cloned cow and a mouse, it has been seen that telomeres are quite longer than their counterparts (Pakhare, 2007). Some more ethical issues in science The process of extracting stem cells from the embryo during therapeutic cloning results in the destruction of the embryo being used. This is the main reason why many views are against stem cell research as they believe killing an embryo is equivalent to killing a human being. However, some people believe that equalising a cluster of cells with a human is completely wrong and advantages of therapeutic cloning with regards to treatment of many diseases outweigh the disadvantages of it (Explorestemcells, 2010). In addition, since reproductive cloning also uses SCNT to create an embryo, there is still the concern that a scientist may take therapeutic cloning further to clone a human being. As described above, no one has ever been successful in cloning a human being; however, it is still alarming for the political, scientific, and religious communities that, with the current knowledge of cloning today, some may attempt to go beyond therapeutic cloning (Explorestemcells, 2010). Possible future developments As explained previously, the main issues surrounding human embryonic stem cell (HESC) research are raised only due to the fact that the embryo is destroyed in the process of extracting stem cells from it. If an alternative way to obtain non-embryonic pluripotent stem cells could be developed, this problem could be overcome. This research is mainly crucial in the U.S. due to different policies that are raised against the federal funding of HESC research. One of the newest ways to approach these alternative pathways is by using the Altered Nuclear Transfer (ANT) technique. Through ANT, the somatic cell nucleus and egg cytoplasm are modified first and, subsequently via SCNT technique, the somatic nucleus is transferred to the egg. The advantage of this method is that it prevents the resultant zygote from developing the potential capabilities of becoming an embryo whilst simultaneously allowing it to produce pluripotent stem cells. ANT has already been experimented on with mice by silenc ing the Cdx2 gene of the somatic cell nucleus before transferring it to the egg. The result was the production of non-embryonic biological entity that contained healthy and normal pluripotent stem cells. Other studies show that this is also achievable by silencing Cdx2 genes in the egg prior to nuclear transfer. Therefore, finding alternative ways are also possible solutions to get around this problem (Hurlbut, 2007). Another idea that scientists brought forth for discussion after cloning Dolly that they hope to apply in medical centres in the near future is the idea of creating designer babies. This idea was mainly proposed in order to help humankind by using the combination of nuclear transfer and genetic modification. This theory believes that the prevention of children with severe genetic disorders being born can be done by artificial selection of the best possible genetic information, using genetic engineering and IVF techniques. Designer babies ensure the presence and absence of particular wanted and unwanted genes ameliorating the offsprings characteristics (Steinbock, 2008). Since IVF was finally accepted by many public organisations after extreme debate, the action of genetically modifying human embryos may also be accepted one day as routine even if it is not applied on a large scale. However, surely moral issues surrounding this technology would make it difficult to carry on this techni que. Some believe that the designer babies technique, like human cloning, is playing God. Others believe that this is a kind of prejudice and discrimination to disallow a disabled child to be born. Many fear the negative long-term effects that this can have on society. For instance, a childs sense of independence might change knowing that his parents had interfered with his birth to change his natural birth in some ways (Wilmut et al., 2007). Nowadays, several other techniques are being offered to patients with genetic diseases in medical centres, such as gene therapy. Therefore, some people believe that the genetic make-up of an individual must not be manipulated before birth; however, it is fine to do that after birth, such as through gene therapy. Conclusion Having discussed some of the main ethical and scientific issues, there are still some unreasonable and illogical criticisms about cloning that have been raised due to the lack of understanding and knowledge about this issue. Misconceptions about human cloning in terms of confusing it with other biomedical and genetically-related techniques, such as designer babies and genetic selection results in false information and judgment about this procedure. As opposed to what many people believe, human cloning is not able to select perfect genes or sex and result in a self-designed perfect human being. Therefore, so many arguments about human cloning, especially religious ones that are based on these perspectives and similar information, are due to superficial and shallow thinking (Vaknin, 2003). In conclusion, a government needs to completely analyse an issue like human cloning before proposing different laws about it and banning it. Restricting research about the issue not only does not solve the problem, but it also makes the conflicts of this matter worse, and it may result in the abstruse and secret execution of illegal human cloning. I, too, have instinctive concerns regarding the application of reproductive cloning. I believe that not only does this type of cloning not have many scientific uses that can help humanity, but it also only brings psychological and mental problems to society. Therefore, there is no doubt why reproductive cloning must be banned and tightly regulated. Regarding stem cell research I believe the ethical guidelines and boundaries must be identified instead of banning the research completely. As mentioned in the context of this dissertation, there are many advantages that can be achieved through stem cell research that must not be neglected. For example, in China, the investment in stem cell science is growing whilst the instruction and rules about this study are also tightly controlled (Sample, 2005). Furthermore, using human dignity and sanctity of life as the centre of the arguments does not help to logically analyse and investigate the benefits and drawbacks of the technique. As nobody is anti-human dignity, such arguments can only act as a barrier that does not allow further study of this technology. As Beyleveld and Brownsword noted (1998), From any perspective that values rational debate about human genetics, it is an abuse of the concept of human dignity to operate it as a veto on any practice that is intuitively disliked. Finally, we need to make use of advantages that this technology can bring to mankind. As noted by Wilmut et al, (2001), Human cloning is now on the spectrum of future possibilities and we, more than anyone else, helped to put it there. We wish this were not the case, but there it is and will remain for as long as civilisation lasts. Of course, we can use alternatives if there are any, but if the only way to save thousands of lives is by using therapeutic cloning, as long as the benefits of such process outweighs the ethical and moral issues, we need to rethink our policies in terms of what we ban and what we limit.